ABSTRACT

Looking beyond a purely scientific discussion of hydrology, the authors of this volume emphasize that mankind needs to recognize the urgency of the situation in which our water is threatened. Providing a comprehensive overview of the broad and complex field of hydrology, the book explores the water cycle, its various components, and its interaction

chapter 1|1 pages

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

chapter 1|7 pages

1.1 Early explanations of the Water Cycle

chapter 1|1 pages

1.4 Water in the Middle Ages

chapter 1|3 pages

1.5 Ancient Legislations Related to Water

chapter 1|8 pages

3 ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED WITH WATER

chapter 2|1 pages

2 WATER, THE ELEMENT

chapter |6 pages

HOHHOHHHHOHOOHHHHOOHOHHHOOHHHH

chapter 2|8 pages

2.4 Seawater

chapter |2 pages

Lag-time

chapter |2 pages

Coutagne’s Equation

Evaporation

chapter |2 pages

Infiltration and Percolation

Atmospheric water

chapter 2|5 pages

4 THE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER

chapter 2|7 pages

4.2 The Climatic Zone Scale

chapter 3|4 pages

THE WATERSHED AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

chapter |2 pages

H Q Qmax Q Qmoy Qmoy t

chapter |5 pages

Isochrone curves

chapter |3 pages

Relief

chapter |8 pages

Average Altitude

chapter |3 pages

The Longitudinal Profile of a River

chapter |8 pages

watershed A watershed B

Q / A

chapter |1 pages

Open Water Surfaces

chapter |7 pages

Snow and Ice Cover

chapter |1 pages

a) b)

chapter 3|1 pages

6 CONCLUSIONS

chapter 4|4 pages

PRECIPITATION

chapter 4|2 pages

3.3 The Different Types of Precipitation

chapter 4|8 pages

6 OBSERVATION NETWORKS AND PUBLICATION OF DATA

4.6.1 Observation Networks

chapter 4|3 pages

7.7 The Construction of IDF Curves

Analytical representation

chapter 4|2 pages

7.8 Rainfall Structure

chapter 5|1 pages

EVAPORATION AND INTERCEPTION

chapter 5|2 pages

1.1 Interception

chapter |9 pages

Precipitation Transpiration Canopy evaporation Soil evaporation Stemflow Throughfall Absorption by roots

5.2.1 Description and formulation of the physical process

chapter |4 pages

Wind Profiles

chapter |2 pages

Evaporation from Bare Soils

chapter |3 pages

Meteorological Factors

chapter 5|5 pages

4.3 Analytical Expression of Interception

chapter 6|8 pages

FLOWS AND INFILTRATION

chapter |1 pages

Physically-based Models

chapter 6|2 pages

3 FLOWS

6.3.1 General Introduction

chapter 6|7 pages

3.2 Surface Flow

chapter 7|4 pages

WATER STORAGE AND RESERVES

chapter 7|4 pages

3.2 Soil Water

chapter |2 pages

Main Characteristics of an Aquifer The main function of the aquifer is to provide underground storage for the retention and release of gravitational water. Aquifers can be characterized by indices that reflect their ability to recover moisture held in pores in the earth (only the large pores give up their water easily). These indices are related to the volume of exploitable water. Other aquifer characteristics include: • Effective porosity corresponds to the ratio of the volume of “gravitational” water at saturation, which is released under the effect of gravity, to the total volume of the medium containing this water. It generally varies between 0.1% and 30%. Effective porosity is a parameter determined in the laboratory or in the field. • Storage coefficient is the ratio of the water volume released or stored, per unit of area of the aquifer, to the corresponding variations in hydraulic head 'h. The storage coefficient is used to characterize the volume of useable water more precisely, and governs the storage of gravitational water in the reservoir voids. This coefficient is extremely low for confined groundwater; in fact, it represents the degree of the water compression. • Hydraulic conductivity at saturation relates to Darcy’s law and characterizes the effect of resistance to flow due to friction forces. These forces are a function of the characteristics of the soil matrix, and of the fluid viscosity. It is determined in the laboratory or directly in the field by a pumping test. • Transmissivity is the discharge of water that flows from an aquifer per unit width under the effect of a unit of hydraulic gradient. It is equal to the product of the saturation hydraulic conductivity and of the thickness (height) of the groundwater. • Diffusivity characterizes the speed of the aquifer response to a disturbance: (variations in the water level of a river or the groundwater, pumping). It is expressed by the ratio between the transmissivity and the storage coefficient. Effective and Fictitious Flow Velocity: Groundwater Discharge As we saw earlier in this chapter, water flow through permeable layers in saturated zones is governed by Darcy’s Law. The flow velocity is in reality the fictitious velocity of the water flowing through the total flow section. Bearing in mind that a section is not necessarily representative of the entire soil mass, Figure 7.7 illustrates how flow does not follow a straight path through a section; in fact, the water flows much more rapidly through the available pathways (the tortuosity effect). The groundwater discharge Q is the volume of water per unit of time that flows through a cross-section of aquifer under the effect of a given hydraulic gradient. The discharge of a groundwater aquifer through a specified soil section can be expressed by the equation:

chapter |3 pages

Evaluating Snow Storage

chapter 8|2 pages

HYDROLOGICAL MEASUREMENT

chapter 8|3 pages

1.2 Recording Gauges

chapter 8|3 pages

1.4 Errors of Measurement

8.2.1 Factors Affecting the Measurement of Evaporation

chapter |2 pages

Wind

Atmometers

chapter 8|4 pages

2.4 Measuring Evapotranspiration

8.3.1 Definitions

chapter 8|6 pages

3.3 Discharge Measurements

chapter 9|7 pages

DATA HANDLING AND ORGANIZATION

chapter 9|4 pages

3.2 Main Categories of Statistical Tests

Tests According to their Mathematical Properties

chapter |3 pages

textbook on statistics for details.) Example: Because a anthropogenic intervention had altered the Viege watershed in 1964, the peak discharge series is separated into two samples: x , x,…., x (peak discharge 1922 to 1963), and y , y,…., y (peak discharge 1964 to 1996).

(97.5%) = 1.72. Given that 1.31 is less than 1.97, we cannot reject the null hypothesis that the variances are equal and we can apply the Student test for the two samples. Since we know what kind of effects result from dam construction, we would expect to see a significant reduction in discharge in the second sample, which leads us to formulate the alternative assumption to test the homogeneity of the samples starting

chapter |6 pages

Nonparametric tests

chapter 9|3 pages

3.7 Several Parameters - Regional Scale

The Balance Method

chapter 10|4 pages

HYDROLOGICAL REGIMES

chapter |4 pages

∑ Q . Q

chapter 10|2 pages

3 MIXED REGIME

10.3.1 Nivo-glacial Regime

chapter 10|2 pages

4 COMPLEX REGIME

chapter 11|1 pages

HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES AND RESPONSES

chapter 11|5 pages

2 GENERAL INFORMATION

chapter 11|8 pages

6 SUB SURFACE FLOW

chapter |6 pages

References

chapter |2 pages

LIST OF ACRONYMS