ABSTRACT
Tobacco smoke contains more than 100 carcinogens and mutagens, many of which are classified as carcinogens based on human and animal studies. The use of low-tar and low-nicotine yield cigarettes has been paradoxically accompanied by an increased risk of lung cancer due to increased tobacco use and exposure to cigarette yields with higher mutagen and carcinogen content. Alcoholic beverages clearly increase the risk of oral cavity, liver, eso-phageal, breast, and other cancers. However, the actual mechanisms that alcohol drinking contributes to carcinogenesis have not been well defined. The use of tobacco products, as they are intended to be used, results in the exposure to more than 100 mutagens and carcinogens. Different types of methods for assessing tobacco-related cancer risk in humans are available. External exposure markers attempt to predict exposure without regard to interindividual differences in smoking behavior and cellular processes.
