Modernization in Russian relations with EU member states

Russia is, probably, the most controversial partner of the European Union (EU). One reason for this is that member states have a diverse legacy of their relations with Moscow. They also vary in their current political and economic dialogues as well as in what they would like to see in these relations in the future. This diversity has led to debates about the need for and the (im)possibility of solidarity in the policy towards Russia. ¹ Others have approached the problem by looking at what member states bring to the EU’s Russian policy ² and how national leaders make a choice of whether to use a bilateral track or that of the EU. ³ They have also examined how Russia sows discord in the EU’s policy. ⁴ Russian specialists have frequently seen the EU as an awkward player that is very difficult to deal with while relations with member states are more efficient. ⁵ They have also emphasized that certain EU states tend to project their Russia-related problems to the EU level instead of contributing to the long-term EU– Russian agenda ⁶ and that only a few member states contribute to constructive EU–Russian relations. ⁷ Various studies also sought to classify EU member states on the basis of their friendliness to Moscow. ⁸ The interaction between the EU level and national levels has also been conceptualized as one of the facets of the level-of-analysis problem in EU–Russian relations. ⁹