ABSTRACT
Compared to other educational topics, mathematics has an apparent universality that has made it a special focus of cross-national research on education and cognitive development. Unlike literacy, which is subserved by vastly different writing systems, the basic representational systems that underlie mathematics, from Arabic numerals to algebraic symbols, are in near-universal use throughout the world. Thus, it is not surprising that mathematics has been a major focus of large-scale studies that attempt to compare overall population levels of achievement (e.g., Beaton & Robitaille, 1999; Husén, 1967; Travers & Westbury, 1990).
