ABSTRACT
The work and family roles of middle-class women in the United States changed dramatically during the late 20th century as women with children, especially young children, continued to enter the workforce in increasing numbers (Barnett & Hyde, 2001; Bond, Galinsky, & Swanberg, 1998). As of 2000, almost 73% of women in the United States with children under age 18 years participated in the labor force (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2000). Not surprisingly then, the influence of maternal employment on children was the original focus of the “work and family” field that emerged in the 1960s, and it continues to be one of the major themes of the work and family literature today (Perry-Jenkins, Repetti, & Crouter, 2000). Extensive reviews of empirical studies have not shown consistent negative effects of maternal employment on child development (Armistead, Wierson, & Forehand, 1992; Harvey, 1999). Although much research has focused on consequences for childhood and early adolescence, comparatively less research has examined the consequences of earlier maternal employment for offspring in later adolescence and adulthood (Ahmad-Shirali & Bhardwaj, 1994; Bridges & Etaugh, 1996). This is particularly important because important decisions about school to work transitions are made during these years. Identity formation is a crucial developmental task during adolescence and young adulthood, including the development of gender roles and personal ideals toward work and personal relationships, with parents in particular serving as crucial role models of what it means to be an “adult” ( Jackson & Tein, 1998; Eccles, 1993).
