ABSTRACT
Deliberation-open and informed consideration of public affairs-is a fundamental component of democratic theory and democratic practice. Along with equal protection under the law, regular elections, and freedom of speech, deliberation must be regarded as essential to self-rule in all democratic states. Indeed, the hallmark of an oppressive society is the absence of a rich and varied public sphere where citizens can convene to debate vital questions of the day. Even our most eloquent “elitist” versions of democratic theory (e.g., Lippmann, 1922), while not particularly hopeful about actual citizen participation, leave much space for potential deliberation among citizens and leaders. And this is only fitting, since it is deliberation that enables us to elect those men and women who will carry out our preferred politics and build support for our favored ideological frameworks.
