ABSTRACT
With the expansion of the Qing dynasty in continental Asia, several nomadic groups established relations with the Qing whose nature has been variously described as “tribute,” trade, and other forms of dependency or collaboration. These frontier nomads – who were very different in status from the nomadic peoples incorporated early on in the Manchu state – remained marginal to the formation of the Qing empire. Yet, the position that they held is relevant as we consider that a large part of the recent history of Kirghiz, Kazakhs, and Mongols is one of struggle against, and incorporation within, expanding sedentary states. The conquest of Xinjiang, which marked the last great expansionist stride of the Qing empire, is part of this history. What means did the Qing state employ to control these nomads after their armies had occupied northwestern China? How was the nomads’ military potential used, and defused? Were they turned into subjects? Were they “tributary” states? Or, were they simply independent trading partners?
