A Popular Dictionary of Islam

the world's great religions. It has become a truism

114 chapters (suras) of These entries, however, while they do claim to give a brief way claim to provide an what is contained in that Chapter. Qur'ānic verses and Chapter

pleasure every year to invite Dr Richard Hitchcock, Head of the Department of Spanish and Reader in Hispano-Arabic Studies in the University of Exeter, to lecture year undergraduate students on Islamic Spain: a few of the ideas gleaned from these lectures are incorporated in this Dictionary. My final thanks go to Dr Lynn Williams, also of the Department of Spanish at Exeter University, for his encouragement and provision of useful and fascinating information which I have incorporated in this

AD (Anno Domini) Christian era Ar. Arabic edn edition

The Arabic word or name constitutes the major entry but this is heavily cross-referenced from the English. Cross references within entries are printed in Bold also appear after all but the most common like Muhammad, Qur'ān, Sura etc. The order of entries in this

' Abasa (Ar.) The title of the 80th sura of the Qur'ān; it means literally 'He frowned'. The sura belongs to the Meccan period and contains 42 verses. Its title reflects the Prophet Muham­ mad's impatience on being interrupted by a blind man while the former was expounding the Qur' The sura goes on to stress the

'slaves', while 'ibād is used for 'servants (of God)'. Al-'Ibād means 'mankind'. However, the Qur'ān does use for slaves: of a proper name, e.g. 'Abd al-Rahm ān (= Servant of the Merciful God). Slavery was common throughout Islamic history He espoused the theology of the Mu'tazila (q.v.) and was a notable exponent of their views. Legally he belonged at first to the Shāf ī' ī School of Islamic law. He held the post of Chief Judge in Rayy which was near modern Tehran. When his protector in Rayy died, he was deposed and little is known about the latter part of his life. His most important work of Theology

Lahab died soon after the Battle of to Islam. (See 'Abd al-Muţţalib b. Hāshim; Badr, Battle of) 'Abd Manāf Father of Hāshim (q.v.) and ancestor of the Prophet Muhammad. 'Abd Manāf His name in Arabic means literally 'servant of

incident is covered in S ūrat al-Fil (q.v.) of the Qur'ān. The presence of one or more elephants in Abraha's entourage led to the year AD 570 (the year of the Prophet Muhammad's birth) being called 'The Year of the Elephant'. The facts of Abraha's life became much embellished with legend.

collection of traditions than many others of his age and before him. Abū Hanīfa (c. 80/699-150/767) His full name was Abu Hanīfa al-Nu'mān b. Thābit. He gave his name to the Hanafī

whose guardian he became on the death of 'Abd al-Muttalib b. Hāshim (q.v.). Muhammad is said to have gone on trading expeditions with him. As head of the clan of Hāshim (q.v.) he was able to give Muhammad some protection while the latter was in Mecca (q.v.). The succession of Abu Tālib by Abū Lahab

Arabic literature and legend have considerably elaborated the basic Qur'ānic portrait of Adam. He also has a special role in the cosmology of the Ismā'īlīs (q.v.), being the first of seven nātiqs (q.v.). For all Muslims throughout history Adam has had a special significance and symbolism.

mediaeval times were warned against treating the Punishment of the Grave as an allegory. (See al-Hisāb; al-Janna; Rūmān.) Adhān (Ar.) The call to prayer. This is made five times the Muslim faithful by the Mu'adhdhin (q.v.). The call consists of seven main parts, with some slight variation in the number of

Afrād (Ar.) [sing. fard] Technical term in a variety of fields including that of (ones)', 'unique (ones)'. In the study of traditions where the second link in the isnād (q.v.) contains no more than a single name of a tābi' (one who did not know the

caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd (q.v.). Aghlabid control eventually extended as far as Malta and Sicily. The Aghlabids were finally overthrown in North Africa by the Fātimids (q.v.). (See āsids.) Agra Major Indian city on the River Yamuna (Jumna) and Ahl al-Kahf (Ar.) The People of the Cave. (See Ashāb al- Kahf; Sūrat al-Kahf.) Ahlal-Kisā' See Fātima. Ahl al-Kitāb (Ar.) The People of the Book. The name initially referred to the Jews and the Christians whose scriptures like the

Book had a protected status provided that they paid the poll tax (jizya (q.v.)). (See Dhimm Ahl al-Sunna wa 'l-Jamā'a (Ar.) Literally, 'the People of Custom and Community'. This was a title by which the Sunns were known. (See Sunna; Ahmad b. Hanbal (164/780-241/855) One of the most dis­ tinguished mediaeval jurists and theologians in Islam. He founded the Hanbalī School of Islamic Law. Because he refused to agree that the Qur' ān was created (as opposed to the mainstream view that it was uncreated), he was imprisoned and persecuted during

recipient of revelation, the Promised Messiah, the Mahdī (q.v.) and an avatar of Krishna. Ahmadīs believe that Jesus escaped from death on a cross and went buried. The Ahmadiyya are split into two main groups: (i) ādiyānīs, who hold that Ghulām Ahmad was a prophet (nab

the siege and Battle of al-Khandaq. The latter part of refers to the Prophet Muhammad's wives, and provides a considerable amount of ethical instruction for Muslims. Khandaq, Siege and Battle of; Khātam al-Nabiyyīn.) 'Ā'isha bint Abī Bakr (c. AD 614-58/678) Third wife of the

Sūrat Āl 'Imrān (q.v.)). Terrestrial and celestial phenomena also have their fixed the Day of Judgement. Early Muslim theologians spent much time discussing ajal and the problems which they believed surrounded the concept. (See al-Hisāb.)

Battle of the; Aligarh Major city in Uttar Pradesh, formerly called Koel (or Koil). The word Aligarh means 'high fortress'. The city became famous in Islamic circles for its university. This had its origins in the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, founded in the last

from both a transcendent and an immanent perspective: on the one hand, there is absolutely nothing like him al-Shūrā); on the other, He is closer to man than the jugular vein in his neck (see v. Allāhu Akbar See Takbīr

the Iranian Shī'ite Imam 1978. Amal has continued to provide a vocal focus for Shī'ite aspirations and hopes in the Lebanon. (See Fundamentalism, Islamic; Ithn ā 'Asharīs.) Ambiguities (Qur'ānic) See Mutashābihāt. Ameer Ali See Amīr 'Alī, Sayyid.

Mu'minīn meant someone given military leadership. The tide was then assumed by the 2nd but with few connotations of however, it became a title reserved for a caliph alone. It was sometimes used by the sultans in the early period of the

cal Arabic phrase meaning 'Commanding the good and forbid­ ding the evil'. This was one of the five key principles of the Mu'tazila (q.v.). The phrase has a clear Qur'ānic foundation as may be seen from v. elsewhere. (See al-Wa'd wa 'l-Wa'īd.) Atlantis, rather than from Vandalicia (Land of the Vandals) as

Andalusia See al-Andalus. al-Anfāl (Ar.) The title of 'The Spoils'. The verses. Its title is taken from the 1st verse which refers to questions which will be asked about the spoils gained at the Battle

an envoy or messenger', serves for both. However, Islam certainly does have its great angels and the reader is referred in this Dictionary in particular to the following entries: Isr āfl, 'Izra'fīl, Jibrīl, Mīka'īl, Munkar and Nakīr. Others are

the purposes of early preaching, teaching and worship. 'Arsh (Ar.) Throne. The word acquired considerable mystical and symbolic overtones and significance among some groups in mediaeval Islam, especially the Ismā'īlīs (q.v.). In the Qur'ān, God is portrayed as being on a throne

(q.v.). The Prophet Muhammad used to fast on this day and so it is still regarded as a holy day in Sunnī (q.v.) Islam. Some Muslims still mark it by fasting. For Shī'ite (q.v.) Islam the day is regarded as sacred primarily because it martyrdom of al-Husayn b. 'Alī (q.v.) at the Battle of Karbalā'.

the Mamlūks (q.v.). (See Hattīn, Battle of) Āzar The pagan father of the prophet Ibrāhīm (q.v.). The Qur'ān mentions him by name in v.74 of Sūrat al-An'ām (q.v.). Here Ibrahim asks his father if he is going to take idols as gods. Elsewhere in the Qur'ān (Sūrat al-Tawba (q.v.)) Ibrāhīm is

Ahmadiyya (2); Khitān; Tasawwuf.) Badawiyya See Ahmadiyya (2); al-Badawī, al-Sayyid Ahmad. Badr, Battle of The first major battle fought between

Sūrat al-Rahman (q.v.) ), and also acquired a specialist meaning in the philosophy of such Islamic mystical philosophers as al-Suhrawardī (q.v.). Here it may be translated as 'isthmus': one such isthmus, associated with the heavenly spheres, was emanated by each of (q.v.) by God. Sūrat al-Baqara (q.v.) in the Qur'ān. (See also Ahwāl; Maqāmāt; Qabd.) al-Bastāmī, Abū Yazīd See al-Bistāmī, Abū Yazīd. Ba'th (Ar.) (1) Resurrection; (2) Sending: (1) Pre-Islamic Arabia believed that the souls of the dead lived on in some kind of

Qadar; Qadariyya.) Yazīd (died 261/874 or 264/877-8) One of the most famous of all the mediaeval sūīs and notorious utterer of such ecstatic phrases my majesty!'. He spent most of his life in Bistām where he died. If he wrote anything, nothing has survived. However, his multitudinous sayings became well-known.

prefix or suffix in place of AD. Users of that, wherever possible, both AH and AD dates are given, the former always appearing first. Caliph See Khalifa. Bakr (q.v.), Talha b. 'Ubaydullāh al- Taymi (q.v.) and al-Zubayr b. al-'Awwām (q.v.) on the one hand, and the forces of 'Alī b. Abī Tālib (q.v.) on the other. It took place in 36/656. The forces of 'Ā'isha were defeated; Talha and, later, al-Zubayr, were killed and 'Ā'isha was taken prisoner though accorded enormous reverence as a wife of the Prophet

Chapter (of the Qur'ān) See Sūra. Chistiyya See Čishtiyya. Circumambulation (of the Ka'ba) See Circumcision See Khitān.

Crusades A series of conflicts which took place in mediaeval times, often on Middle Eastern soil, between Christian Europe and the Muslim East. Known in Arabic as meaning 'The Wars of significance for the European West, and later Western historians,

Damascus, built by the Umayyad caliph Walīd I early in the 1st/ 8th century. (See 'Abbāsids ) Daqyā'īl Name of little-known angel responsible for the guardians of Hell. (See 'Izrā'īl; al-Nār; al-Zabāniyya.)

the totality of those regions or countries which are subject to Islamic law. It may be contrasted with Dār al-Harb (q.v.). We may also note here a third area, Sharī'a.)

repeated over and over again in either a high or a low voice, often linked to bodily movement or breathing. the most important activities of the (q.v.) and its central place has analogies with that of the Divine Office in Western Monasticism. (See Hadra; Samā'; Takbīr.) Dhimma See Dhimmī. Dhimmī (Ar.) The Arabic word indicates one whose life was regulated according to 'an agreement of protection' (dhimma).

for injury or death. The Qur'ān, in v.45 of Sūrat al-Mā'ida (q.v.), draws attention to the Judaic law which is stated to have enjoined a life for a life, an eye for an eye, a nose for a nose, an ear for an ear, a tooth for a tooth, and retaliation for inflicted wounds. (The verse also indicates that the wronged party could

anglicized form of the Arabic word durzī [pl. turn derives from the last element of the proper name Muhammad b. Ismā'īl al-Darazī. The latter, who must founders of the Druzes, taught that the 6th Fātimid caliph, al- Hākim Bi-Amr Allāh (q.v.), was divine. Al-Hākim disappeared Heaven shall bring forth evident smoke, which will cover the people (v. 11). The reference may either be eschatological or to later events in Mecca (q.v.). The sūra begins with two of the Mysterious Letters of the Qur'ān (q.v.) and continues with references to Pharaoh, the deliverance of the Children of Israel

Eve See Hawwā'. Exegesis (of the Qur'ān) See Tafsīr. Exegetes (of the Qur'ān) See Mufassir. Expected Imam See Muhammad al-Qā'im. Ezekiel See Dhū '1-Kifl.

is drawn from the of the Heavens and the earth and the One who has made the angels His envoys or emissaries. This reference here to the angels has also led some commentators to give the title 'The Angels' to this sura. It calls on men to remember God's generosity of

stresses the themes of happened to 'Ād (q.v.) and Thamūd (q.v.). God's enemies will perish in Hell. (See al-Nār.) al-Fustāt First Muslim city in Egypt, established by 'Amr b.

outstanding scholar of Islamic philosophy, though by no means an original philosopher. He was also very well versed in the doctrines of the Ismā'ilīs (q.v.) which he refuted. Al-Ghazāl taught at the Nizāmiyya College in Baghdad (q.v.) until a psychosomatic illness impeded his academic career in 488/1095. al-Ghazāli should be distinguished from his sūfī brother Ahmad. A very readable account of the life and work of Abu Hūmid al- Ghazālī will be found in Watt's this Dictionary for full bibliographical details). (See Falsafa; Tasawwuf.)

of meanings including 'speech', 'report' and 'narrative'. It also has the very important specialist sense of tradition, i.e. a record of the sayings and doings of the Prophet Muhammad and his companions, and as such is regarded by Muslims as a source of Islamic law, dogma and ritual second only in importance to the

Hāmidī uses the traditional Ismāī'fī negative terminology of and his thought is much influenced by Neoplatonism. Ismā'īlīs; Neoplatonism, Islamic) Hammām (Ar.) [pl. pool. Such buildings have existed in Islam in the sense of bath Abū Hanīfa himself. The Hanafī madhhab (q.v.) gained its greatest sphere of influence in the Middle East and the Indian sub­ continent. (See Fiqh; Hanbalīs; Hiyal; Istihsān; Mālikīs; Shāfi'īs; Sharī'a.) Hanbalīs Adherents of one of the four main law schools

an area of (q.v.) and Medina (q.v.), both of which are forbidden to non- Muslims. (See al-Haram al-Harām.) Harām (Ar.) That which is forbidden and unlawful, also sinful.

Hasan -i $abbāh (died 518/1124) Leader of the Assassins (q.v.) of Alamūt (q.v.), scholar, administrator and ascetic, and propagandist par excellence of the Nizārī Ismā ' īlī mission seizing Alamūt in 483/1090 which he made the centre of his

the M ālikis (q.v.) and the Hanbalīs (q.v.) condemned the practice. (See Shāfi'īs; Sharp a.) Hizb (Ar.) [pl. technical meanings in ta$awwuf (q.v.). The most important of these is its use to designate a prayer of particular efficacy.

Meccan period and has 19 verses. Its title is drawn from the 1st verse which refers dramatically to '[the] heaven' cleft, one of the signs of the beginning of the Day of Resurrection. The Angels (called here 'Keepers' or 'Guardians',

Salāt.) Isrāfl One of the great Islamic angels. He is often called 'The Lord of the Trumpet' because it is his task to sound that instrument on the Day of Resurrection. In Islamic art he is often portrayed poised, ready to blow the trumpet on the Last Day at

properly cooked'. However, its sense and translation, where it appears in the Qur'ān in such Arabic phrases as Istawā 'alā considerable problems from mediaeval times onwards, because

who do good, avoid evil, exhibit true repentance and believe in the Qur'ān. (See Hawd; Kāfūr; al-Kawthar; al-Nār; Salsabīl; Sidrat al-Muntahā; Tasnīm.) Jarh wa Ta'dīl (Ar.) 'Rubbishing and declaring reliable': technical term used in hadīth (q.v.) criticism with regard to the

is currently part of The status of Jerusalem is one of the most sensitive issues in the Muslim world today. (See al-Aqsā, al-Masjid; Crusades; al- Haram Jesus See ' Īsā.

in importance with al-Basra (q.v.). The origins of the word 'Kūfa' are obscure. The city was founded in 17/638 and functioned as a military citadel, frequently being involved in the politics of the day. Like al-Basra, al-Kūfa was important for the development of

means 'There is no god but God'. Land Tax See Kharāj. Las Navas de Tolosa, Battle of Battle fought near the present Spanish town of Santa Elena between the Almohads (q.v.) and Christian forces from Castile, Leon, Aragon and Navarre in 609/

'Abd Allah Malik b. Anas. He gave his name to the Malikī School of law whose real founders, strictly speaking, were Malik's disciples. He is regarded as one of the great jurists of mediaeval Islam. He knew Abū Hanīfa (q.v.) and also wrote what is considered to be the first major book of

As the former this is one of the great universally recognized symbols of Islam. the call to prayer is made or broadcast. Throughout history its design has provided considerable scope for the skills and tastes of the Islamic architect: minarets range in shape from the square towers of North Africa, to the more ornately decorated minarets of some of the Cairene mosques and the 'finger' minarets of

The Arabic word, especially in its North African usage, also had the military connotation of 'soldier' or 'frontier-soldier'. In Senegal the word designates, for example, Muslim religious functionaries as well as leaders. (see Ribāt)

Mawlā (Ar.) [pl. mawālī) Client. In early Islamic history this was the technical sense of the word, indicating a non-Arab convert theory, all Muslims in the early Islamic state were supposed to be treated as equals, in practice the mawālī or clients were often (q.v.) order, originating in Turkey, whose name derives from the title borne by their inspirer, the Persian mystical poet Rumī (q.v.), of Mawlānā (Arabic for 'Our Master'; the Turkish form is Mevlānā). The whirling dance of the Mawlawiyya which is performed with music during their dhikr (q.v.), and for which the order has become famous, attempted to

Muslims turn towards Mecca in prayer and undertake the pilgrimage (Hajj (q.v.)) to that city, not only because of its prophetic and historical associations, but because it contains the Ka'ba (q.v.). The Qur'ān was first revealed to Muhammad near this city and it was from Mecca that he made his famous

In the Qur'ān the word outlined above. In v.11 of S ūrat Maryam (q.v.), for example, Zakariyyā (q.v.) comes out to his people from a clearly not the prayer niche of a mosque but rather a kind of sanctuary. (See Masjid; Salāt.)

on very early historical sources like Ibn Ishāq (q.v.) and al- Wāqidī (q.v.); and W. M. Watt's succinct and classic summary for full bibliographical details). verse which talks about belief in what has been revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. The of the unbelievers will be in vain. However, the reverse is true of the deeds of those killed in the path of God: they will enter Paradise. God will protect the believer but the unbeliever will

indicating the direction of the prayer (qibla (q.v.)) towards Mecca (q.v.). Mihrābs are frequently decorated with beautiful calligraphy, tiles and mosaics and constitute an area of the mosque where the artist feels free to give full expression to his combined religious fervour and artistic zeal. Scholars disagree as

on very early historical sources like Ibn Ishāq (q.v.) and al- Wāqidī (q.v.); and W. M. Watt's succinct and classic summary for full bibliographical details). verse which talks about belief in what has been revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. The of the unbelievers will be in vain. However, the reverse is true of the deeds of those killed in the path of God: they will enter Paradise. God will protect the believer but the unbeliever will

and contains 11 verses. Its title is drawn from the 1st verse which tells the Prophet Muhammad that God is well aware that the hypocrites do not mean what they say when they acknowledge Muhammad as the prophet of God. The hypocrites do not understand that God is the real owner of all wealth and treasure in

the two collections together are called 'The Two Sahhīs' (al- major collections. However, unlike other collectors of traditions, Muslim did not sub-divide the books of his work into chapters.

Baghdad was retaken by the Saljūqs (q.v.) in 451/1060. In 466/ 1073 al-Mustansir tried to solve his domestic problems by calling in the Syrian general Badr al-Jamālī to take control of the situation. Al-Mustansir is notable for the longevity of his reign. It may be noted, in passing, here that the name al-Mustansir was

Qur'ān. al-Mu'tamir; Kalām; al-Kindī; Mihna; al-Murji'a; al-Wa'd wa '1-Wa'Id; Wāsil b. 'Atā'.) Mu'tazilite Anglicized adjective meaning 'of or pertaining to the Mu'tazila (q.v.)'.

'The Women'. The sūra belongs to the Medinan period and has 176 verses. Its title reflects much of the subject matter of the which was revealed around the time of aftermath. Orphans are to be treated fairly, women may receive the dowry and rules for inheritance are prescribed. Punishment is

called the Battle of Tours, was one in which the Arabs were defeated. The historian Edward Gibbon believed that this battle was so decisive that, had the Arabs not been defeated, 'the Arabian fleet might have sailed without a naval combat into the mouth of the Thames' and that 'Perhaps the interpretation of the

Qābīl and Hābīl The Arabic names for Cain and Abel. These two sons of Ādam (q.v.) are mentioned, though not by these names, in the Qur'ān which tells the well-known story of the first murder. (See w.27-31 of Sūrat al-Mā'ida (q.v.).) Qadā' (Ar.) Divine decree, divine judgment, divine will, the

The battle was noteworthy for the use of elephants by the Persian side. The Muslim army defeated the Persians in what was a vital victory, opening as it did the path to the eventual Muslim conquest of Persia. al-Qadr (Ar.) The title of the 97th sura of the Qur' ān; it means 'The Power' or 'The Decree'. The srūa belongs to the Meccan

52 verses. Its title is drawn from an oath in the 1st verse 'By the Pen'. The sūra begins by reassuring Muhammad that he is not mad and, after telling the story of the selfish owners of the garden, whose desire to gather its fruit is frustrated, the sura concludes with a reference to the story of Yūnus (q.v.). which refers to the Hour approaching and the moon splitting. This is interpreted either as a reference to the end of the world, or to an eclipse. A number of disbelieving peoples, like those of Nūh (\q.v.), 'Ād (q.v.) and Thamūd (q.v.), who ignored the warnings of God's messengers and in consequence were punished the Ka'ba (q.v.) in 317/930, only returning it some 22 years later in 339/951. (See al-Hajar al-Aswad; Ismā'īlīs.) al-Qari'a (Ar.) The title of the 101st sura of the Qur'ān; it means 'The Sudden Misfortune' and the reference here is to the time of the Last Judgement. The sura belongs to the Meccan

Mosque in Cairo (q.v.). The mosques in Ramadan are also full of worshippers performing extra prayers. The month concludes with one of the great feast days of the Muslim calendar, 'Īd al-Fitr (q.v.). (See Calendar; al-Husayn b. 'Alī; Iftār; Laylat al- Qadr; Sah ūr; Tarāwh.) Tālib (q.v.). The Arabic title Rāshidūn meaning 'rightly guided' constitutes a deliberate contrast with the more secular rulers of the succeeding dynasties of the Umayyads (q.v.) and 'Abbāsids (q.v.). (See Khalīfa.) Rasūl (Ar.) [pl. rusul] Messenger, envoy, apostle. Muham­

Religion See Dn; Islām. Renunciation See Zuhd. Repentance See Tawba. Resignation (to the Will of God) See Islam. Resurrection See Ba'th; Sūrat al-Sāffāt; Yawm al-Dīn;

convert to Islam. A well-known tradition from the Bukhārī (q.v.) portrays some of him which of them would be the quickest to join him (i.e. in death). The response was: She who has the longest hand. This proved to be Sawda whose generosity (= length of hand) was

Sa'dī (died 690/1291) and Hāfiz (c. 720/1320-792/1390). In the mid and later 12th/ 18th century Shrāz also became a Zand tribal capital for a period. (See Isfahān; Safavids.) al-Shīrāzī See Mulla Sadra. Shirk (Ar.) Idolatry, polytheism. This is a heinous sin 'Imrān (q.v.). (See also Mushrikūn.)

able detail about the stories of Mūsā (q.v.) and Pharaoh, Ibrahim (q.v.), Nūh (q.v.), Hud (q.v.), Sālih (q.v.), Lūt (q.v.), and Shu'ayb (q.v.). It is thus a sura which concentrates overwhelmingly on prophetic history. (See Fir'awn.) Shu'ayb Arabian prophet sent to warn the people of Madyan who organize themselves by the Mysterious Letters of the Qur'ān (q.v.) (spread over two verses), goes on to emphasize God's power and omniscience, and makes reference to such great figures as Nūh (q.v.), Ibrāhīm (q.v.),

Jahīm (q.v.) is one of the names in Arabic for Hell. Islamic tradition goes into considerable detail about the nature of, and the imagery and rituals associated with, this bridge. For example, it has seven arches and is extraordinarily thin and sharp. (See al-Nār.) Jahim.) The phrase most notably in v.5 of the Fātilia (q.v.). (See also v.52 of Sūrāt al-Shūrā (q.v.)). The phrase has been interpreted as indicating the Islamic Faith or that which pleases God. (See Qur'ān.) Siyāsa Shar'iyya (Ar.) Governing in accordance with the

see under al-Anfāl. al-Suyūtī, Jalāl al-Dīn (849/1445-911/1505) Egyptian poly­ math, historian, belletrist, grammarian and commentator on the Qur'ān who is credited with having written well over 923) Major early Islamic historian and exegete of the Qur'ān. Born in Tabaristān in Northern Iran, he travelled to many of the great centres of the Islamic world. He was erudite in a large variety of subjects of which three stand out: history, Qur'ānic exegesis and law. He wrote an extremely important world

Muhammad who bade him begin his sūfī work. The early order did not stress zuhd (q.v.) and the ownership of wealth was accepted. A particular characteristic of the order is its stress on thanksgiving to God. The order gained popularity in North Africa as well as the Western Sudan, Senegal and elsewhere in West

the fig and the olive'. The unbeliever and concludes by stressing the greatness of God's justice. al-Tirmidhī, Abū 'Īsā Muhammad (209/824-died between 270/883-4 and 279/892-3) One of the six major compilers of

Muslims as 'the illiterate Prophet', 'the unlettered Prophet'. Umm Kulthūm Daughter of the Prophet Muhammad from his marriage to Khadīja bint Khuwaylid (q.v.). Umm Kulthūm married 'Uthm ān b. 'Affān (q.v.). She died at the time of the expedition to Tabūk (q.v.) in 9/630.

Qur'ān has been interpreted as referring to tithing. tithing tax on be distinguished from kharāj (q.v.) and jizya (q.v.), both taxes on non-Muslims. With time, the real distinction between such taxes as 'ushr and kharāj often became confused. (See also

irretrievable. Many Middle Eastern countries have, or had, a Ministry of Awq North Africa the preferred Arabic term for waqf is al-Wāqi'a (Ar.) The title of the 56th sura of the Qur'ān; it

of the month of Dhū 'l-Hijja (q.v.). Yahyā (Ar.) John. He is the Qur'ānic counterpart of the New Testament Baptist, and appears in the Qur'ān with prophetic status as the longed-for child of Zakariyyā (q.v.). (See Sūrat

and is given, a son, Yahyā, despite his old age and his wife's barrenness. As a sign of the pending birth, Zakariyyā becomes dumb for a period of three days. Zakāt (Ar.) often transliterated alms tax which constitutes one of the five pillars of Islam.

goes on to survey God's benefits to man, as well as His divine power. Reference is later made to the Last Day and the Judgement. Those who enter Paradise will see angels circling the throne of God whom they praise. (See Angel; al-Hisāb; al- Janna; al-Nār; Yawm al-Qiyāma.)

vol. 1:2 (December 1990), pp. 171-191. Haq, M. Anwarul, Haslip, Joan, Cassell, 1958). Hava, J. G., al-Mashriq, 1970). H. A. R. Gibb, 3 vols., (Cambridge: C.U.P. for the Hakluyt Society, 1958-71). Ibn Ishaq, Rasūl Allāh, with introd. and notes by A. Guillaume, (Karachi: O.U.P., 1955, 1980).

1972). 1968). 1961, 1967).