ABSTRACT
Although science is commonly viewed as universal and an international ethos prevails among scientists, scientific work and careers are frequently linked to a nation and to utilitarian goals. This is not surprising, given the fact that major sources of funding for research and development (R&D) are overwhelmingly national. In particular, major national governments have viewed science and technology as national resources and attempted to mobilize them in the interest of each nation. Since the 1960s, the effect of science and technology on national economies has been a growing concern. A number of nation-states have made efforts to bolster economic competitiveness by promoting scientific advance. Science and technology policies in most countries have thus focused on how to better harness R&D and position strategic technologies for industrial competitiveness (Branscomb and Florida 1999, Elzinga and Jamison 1995, Ergas 1987, Okimoto 1989).
