ABSTRACT
There are several reasons why the USA carries out space programmes. Although military applications have been one of the first and most enduring reasons to develop space in the aftermath of the Second World War, international prestige became the most apparent driver in the 1960s, at a time when competition with the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was rife. Exploration of the universe, starting with the Moon, was a major propaganda goal at that time. As several types of satellite applications became available, space quickly came to include considerations of business as well. Motivations in the USA to develop space also include an important and unique psychological factor. America sees space as a new frontier, an echo of the conquest of the west in the 19th century. This is why space and space exploration are of paramount importance in US contemporary self-representation. Other space powers in the world do not necessarily entertain similar moti-
vations. Space means different things for different states. Identifying the type of appeal they see in space will tell us about these states and about the programmes they are most likely to pursue in space, including the types of international co-operation in which they may be most interested. Soviet space ambitions in the 1960s were probably a mirror image to those of the USA, but Russian Federation drivers for space are different now. Albeit they operate on much smaller space budgets, European states, India, the People’s Republic of China, Japan and Israel have also pursued space programmes for decades. They each have their own set of motivations to develop space programmes. What is it that leads them to devote effort, time and money to space? The focus of this chapter is on the space policy drivers in non-US spacefaring states and state organizations, including Russia, the United Kingdom (UK), France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the European Space Agency (ESA), the European Union (EU), India, China, Japan and Israel (Chapter 4 in this volume discusses developing space programmes and moderate space powers, among which Israel could be included).
