ABSTRACT
This chapter introduces some obstacles, especially subjective ones, which stand in the path of the expansion of public participation. The subjective obstacles and difficulties of expansion of public participation are classified as general and specific obstacles. One of the goals of the Islamic Revolution of 1979 has been to increase public participation, including participating in managing cities. The chapter describes the relationship between individuals, the society at large and the state, the role of the city and methods of its management and spatial and social organisation of the city. In Iran, water was the main element of the formation of a city or village. Usually, the bazaar connected the citadel (Arg), Friday mosque and city wall with each other. The concepts of the city and its surrounding areas were so tightly interwoven that it was impossible to imagine a city without a related area and no area without administrational headquarters.
