ABSTRACT
Violence and trauma are no strangers to American Indian societies. From the time of the arrival of Christopher Columbus, the Europeans and those who came after them have pretty well done whatever they wanted to do. Generally, the new arrivals lament the loss of American Indian societies and culture and the violence with which it was accomplished. American Indian societies are discussed in the past tense as if they no longer exist. While many were killed by violence, disease, and mistreatment, killing the societies and their culture was not successful. While tales of the Sand Creek Massacre, Wounded Knee, and other stories of violence against Indians abound, there are over 2 million American Indians and many American Indian cultures that have survived. American Indians today are beset with domestic violence, alcohol abuse, drug problems, suicide, and shootings. Yet, despite the social problems, poverty, and attempts to destroy them and their cultures, American Indian cultures have survived over 400 years of attempts to make them part of the past rather than the present, and have exhibited resilience in the face of trauma and overwhelming obstacles.
