ABSTRACT
Pragmatism is “the philosophy of practical consequences.”1 Although its roots go back to Heraclitus and the Sophists in ancient Greece,2 it is the first distinctively American school of philosophy. Its primary proponents were Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey. These three were sometimes called the American Pragmatists, even though they differed significantly in their views. The word pragmatism comes from the Greek word for a deed or action,3 thus providing a unifying feature of all three of these viewpoints. The pragmatist’s maxim might be stated: We clarify a hypothesis by identifying its practical consequences. Truth or meaning comes not from rational thought or opinions of authorities but from the results of an idea when tested. Thus, the scientific method is applicable-activity, awareness of the problem, observation of data, and formulation and testing of a hypothesis.4
