ABSTRACT

Hercules' adventures at Omphale's court are presented in ancient literature from the Classical period to Late Antiquity in significantly different ways. Some authors entirely omit the cross-dressing when recounting the Lydian episode, emphasising instead the heroic deeds Hercules performs at the queen's behest, or the humiliation of his servitude. Long before Christian condemnation of the cross-dressing episode, Ovid provided a version of the Hercules–Omphale narrative, which, for our purposes, helpfully highlights aspects considered problematic due to their inversion of conventional gender roles. The most thorough censure of Hercules' cross-dressing escapade is to be found in Christian polemic. When the apologists addressed the contemptible behaviour of pagan deities and heroes, a recurrent theme is moralising criticism of Hercules' character and deeds. While Hercules provided ample material for criticism, the cross-dressing and submission at Omphale's court, familiar to many readers, added another angle.