ABSTRACT
Cross-dressing emperors were usually presented as aberrations who were certainly not representative of Roman culture in general. The phenomenon of cross-dressing kings and queens was not limited to exotic countries and the mythical past, but also occurred within the Roman Empire. Caligula was the first Roman emperor said to have frequently appeared in drag. With ruling and warfare tagged as exclusively masculine activities in Graeco-Roman culture, any deficiencies that emperors displayed in these fields were inevitably perceived in terms of gender. If political authority and military prowess made a man, those who lacked the qualities must suffer from mollitia, a physical and mental 'softness' that undermined their masculinity. For Graeco-Roman authors who were out to criticize imperial behaviour and representation, cross-dressing was an obvious way to signal that the natural balance of power between the sexes had been overturned. It is as were associated activities such as wearing make-up, spinning wool and passive homosexuality, and horse-riding and warfare.
