ABSTRACT
Oestrogen exerts protective effects upon the cardiovascular system in premenopausal women, resulting in lower rates of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in females versus males. These cardioprotective effects of oestrogen are mediated by oestrogen receptors, which are present throughout vascular and cardiac tissue. At the menopause, oestrogen and its protective effects are lost, resulting in a steeper decline in cardiovascular health than that of age-matched males. Indeed, traditional CVD risk factors appear to have a more profound effect in postmenopausal women versus males. Loss of oestrogen directly affects the structure and function of both the vasculature and the heart. Menopausal hormone treatment has been shown to produce conflicting results, whereby improvements or worsening of cardiovascular health has been demonstrated. Furthermore, even if menopausal hormone treatment is used, a large proportion of CVD risk remains. Physical activity and exercise have been shown to reduce traditional CVD risk factors in pre- and postmenopausal women. Additionally, exercise training interventions appear to directly improve vascular and cardiac structure and function in postmenopausal women.
