ABSTRACT
Europeanization is both a vertical and horizontal process: the harmonization of different national legal, economic and political systems to conform to common European standards, and the spread of standard practices and ideas across Europe. A semi-vertical process of institutional integration involves both central-level facilitation and grassroots institutional ties. An example of such two-level Europeanization is the integration of trade unions into the European-level peak association, the European Trade Union Confederation: while not mandatory, membership provides enough incentives for national federations to enter. In general, economic Europeanization means creating a common European market. Its foundations are free movement of goods, services and labour, but also, relatively high standards of labour protection. Europeanization is a process that has always had its critics. They may be divided into two types: those who oppose it on principle, and those who see it as sham façade for the persistence of authoritarian, premodern or post-communist political structures.
