ABSTRACT
This part introduction presents an overview of the key concepts discussed in the subsequent chapters. The part argues that different types of crises of representation gave rise to different types of populism. In Southern Europe and Latin America populists politicized a rejection of neoliberal policies and the political elites that implemented them. The part explores a political economy approach to analyze the different class composition of Islamic populist parties in Indonesia, Turkey, and Egypt. It shows how populist appeals to the ummah (community of believers) "substitutes for the concept of the 'people' that permeates through more conventional kinds of populism". The part focuses on ethnic exclusionary populisms in the U. S. and Europe. It shows how exclusionary white populism was a reaction to the Civil Rights Movement. Populist parties created a dense set of organizations in civil society to forge strong identities by opposing and fighting against ethnic and religious enemies.
