ABSTRACT
Reverse discrimination, or affirmative action, is inherently controversial. The mere presence of a handful of women or black people in positions of power is not necessarily of assistance in reversing discrimination against women or blacks in society in general. Responses to the controversy about reverse discrimination can be grouped into three broad camps. The "symmetrical" approach rejects reverse discrimination, the "substantive" approach largely supports it, and the "equal opportunities" approach uses arguments from each of the other two camps to permit positive action within strict limits. Discrimination on grounds of race is odious even if directed against a group that has never been the subject of governmental discrimination. Once individuals enjoy equality of opportunity, it is argued, the problem of institutional discrimination has been overcome, and fairness demands that they be treated on the basis of their individual qualities, without regard to sex or race.
