ABSTRACT
Summarizing the history of public campaigns a decade ago, Rogers and Storey (1987) proposed that researchers’ experience could be described in three developmental periods. The first was the minimal effects era (1940s1950s) distinguished by some spectacular campaign failures and recognition of the limited and often indirect role of mass media in generating campaign effects. This era nevertheless pointed toward a more sophisticated understanding of campaign effects and how to achieve them strategically and tactically (Cartwright, 1949, 1954; Hyman & Sheatsley, 1947; Starr & Hughes, 1950).1
