ABSTRACT
Electrodes are widely used in research and industry for analysis, synthesis, hydrolysis, plating, and so forth. Probably because of convenience, electrodes are also directly immersed in culture medium to provide electrical stimulation (ES). Electrical (EF) and electromagnetic (EMF) fields are effective tools to manipulate cellular activities for different purposes, including tissue repair and regeneration. Since the early work about bioelectricity and bone growth in the 1960s, particularly in the last 20 years, a variety of experimental methods have been developed to modulate the cell activities under the influence of EF or EMF. Based on how a field is established, these methods can be grouped into different categories: electrode-based EF, Helmholtz coil-induced dynamic EMF, static magnetic field (MF), electromagnetically induced EF, capacitively induced EF, conductive substrate-based EF, and other types. This chapter describes these methods, discusses their advantages and disadvantages, and aims to help readers understand the complexity involved in these techniques.
