ABSTRACT
During the rise of psychology in 19th-century Germany, the focus was on understanding the human mind by experimental studies of sensation, reaction time, and other subjects involving introspection, under the leadership of Wilhelm Wundt. In England, psychologists were preoccupied with the study of animal behavior. The earlier methodologies were principally observational, or even anecdotal, with frequent anthropomorphic interpretations, as epitomized by George Romanes (1882). More than a decade later, the naturalist C. Lloyd Morgan, whose reputation was enhanced by his introduction of the law of parsimony in evaluating data, advocated a more cautious use of anthropomorphic analogies (1898). This early emphasis on animal behavior by English psychologists was in part attributable to the influence of Darwin’s monograph The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). Some of the same influences found expression on the North American Continent.1 Two major works in the European tradition of observation of instinctive behavior and other activities of animals roaming freely in their natural environments, exemplified by Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen, were published in America at the turn of the century.
