ABSTRACT
America’s civil society is composed of voluntary associations with many trying to influence what knowledge is taught in schools, how it is taught, and the organizational structure of schooling. Commentators on America’s political life point to the important role of civil society where legislation often follows the actions of civil organizations. In The Idea of Civil Society, Adam Seligman writes, “social movements and not political parties have been the chief form of articulating and furthering demands for social change in the United States-the uniquely American response to social crises.”1 In recent times, the civil rights and anti-Vietnam War protests, popular movements against drunk driving, smoking and drugs, the concerns of religious associations, and the struggles between liberal and conservative groups have influenced or determined educational legislation at all levels of government. For example, the civil rights movement not only resulted in legislation and court rulings supporting school integration but also initiated the 1960s “War on Poverty” legislation which included Head Start and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. Christian associations concerned about the U.S. Supreme Court’s 1960 decisions involving school prayer and Bible reading initiated a movement for school choice and home schooling to protect children from the secular nature of schools, resulting in legislative proposals and in some legal requirements embodied in the 2001 No Child Left Behind legislation. Also, conservative and liberal foundations and think tanks actively seek to influence school legislation.
