ABSTRACT
Since the mid 1970s, environmental lead concentrations have declined significantly in most developed countries as a result of successive reductions in lead emissions. Nevertheless, low- level exposure to lead continues to threaten health of vulnerable groups, such as young children. In some developing countries, rapid economic growth and traffic increase have given rise to concern about risk associated with lead in the urban environment. However, until recently, there has been little quantitative information on exposure to lead in these areas. Birmingham, UK and Shanghai, China were chosen to represent different environmental features and provide differences in risks from exposure to lead. Surveys were implemented in and around houses within these cities between 1995 and 1996. In Birmingham, concentrations of lead measured in 85 houses showed a considerable fall over the period from 1984 to 1996. In Shanghai, whilst concentrations of lead in soils and roadside dusts remained relatively lower, elevated concentrations were found in the dusts collected from 65 houses. It was thought that the internal enrichment of lead was mainly due to the use of lead-containing paint in the decoration of floor spaces. The US-EPA Integrated Exposure Uptake Biokinetic (IEUBK 0.99d) lead exposure model for children was validated, updated, and applied to predict blood lead levels and provide comparative assessment of risks. As predicted, health risk has declined significantly in Birmingham over the period 1984-1996, while higher level of lead was predicted in Shanghai’s young children. The results suggested that the reduction of environmental lead in the developing world is of equal importance to that in developed countries.
