Developments in political science show that in the 20th century, it evolved through three broad historical phases: Traditionalist, Behavioralist, and Post-Behavioralist. The Traditionalist conception fostered a state-centric and paternalistic approach to citizenship and citizenship education. The Behavioralist conception prescribed the positivist method to the study of politics and thereby stressed value neutrality in the teaching of government. The Post-Behavioralist conception repudiated both state-centrism and value neutrality by highlighting the significance of civic engagement through the teaching and learning of democratic values. The American Political Science Association (APSA) was founded during a period when political science was still in its infancy and Traditionalism was the dominant paradigm in the discipline. Traditionalism persisted as an essential component of the curriculum and instruction in government, it had implications in two important areas: women and citizenship education and cultural diversity and citizenship education. In a pluralist system, citizens' nonparticipation in the political process or protest against oppressive public policies is a form of participation.