This conclusion presents some closing thoughts on the key concepts discussed in the preceding chapters of this book. The book discusses a broader view of the context in which mathematical thinking and argument is developed–namely, the way in which mathematical knowledge is developed either through professional groups and apprenticeship approaches, or through schooling approaches. The theme of different perspectives also had parallels in discussions around mathematical thinking or thinking more generally. The book provides a fascinating insight into the innate mathematical abilities in non-human animals, illustrating the value of comparing such abilities across diverse species rather than focusing solely on humans. It describes historical emergence of mathematics, and highlights the process by which humankind may have transcended their immediate needs in order to create what we would regard as early mathematics. The book focuses on the impact of working memory on the learning of mathematics, and whether and how improving working memory can have an impact on mathematical achievement.