ABSTRACT
In broad terms, accountability denotes a system of interdependent social relationships, processes, and mechanisms by means of which an individual's actions are motivated, in whole or in part, by her anticipation of others’ evaluations of and reactions to her action(s) and/or her explanatory account of those actions. In narrowly instrumental principal–agent conceptions, accountability refers to the use of anticipated sanctions and rewards to motivate agents to fulfill the expectations of principals, and is sometimes offered as a kind of magic word, with more and stricter accountability invoked as the cure for all that ails public organizations. In practice, the instrumental use of accountability as an instrument of political governance and organizational management is significantly complicated by the broader nature of accountability as a motivation for individual and collective action. Understanding the variety of accountability relationships and mechanisms operative in any given public–administrative setting can help scholars and practitioners avoid forming or perpetuating unrealistic expectations about how and with what results accountability works in practice.
