ABSTRACT
The costs of congestion could be reflected by: travel time increases, vehicle provision and operating costs, disamenities in crowded system, additional fuel costs reliability, scarcity of slots. In case of accidents costs the external part is connected with the part of costs are not covered by risk oriented insurance premiums, like: material damages, administrative costs, medical costs, production losses and the so called risk-value as a proxy to estimate pain, grief and suffering in monetary values. Air pollution is the next kind of costs, reflected mostly by health costs, building and material damages, crop losses in agriculture and impacts on the biosphere or impact on biodiversity and ecosystems. Noise is also important negative effect of transport activity. Its level could be estimated on the basis of costs of annoyance or health costs (hearing damages or nervous stress reaction). The key areas of climate change costs assessment are sea level rise (additional protection), energy use (heating), agriculture impacts (crops changes), water supply, health impact (heat or cold stress), ecosystems and biodiversity (extinction of vulnerable species). The following sorts of external costs are regarded as the less important and more difficult to estimate. Nature and landscape effects influencing on habitat loss, habitat fragmentation or habitat quality loss. The water and soil pollution are connected with the repair costs or health costs for human beings. The indication of sensitive areas external costs is caused by higher environmental pressure in that places and taking into consideration the all kinds and types of costs. The up-and downstream costs are generated in the other areas of economy by there are caused by transport development (energy production, vehicle production, infrastructure construction). The next sort of external costs – urban effects are made by other participants of motorized traffic on the urban areas (pedestrians,
cyclists, etc.). They are mostly regarded as time losses or scarcity problems. The last sort of external costs is the energy dependency resulted from the unequal distribution of energy sources. For that reason, the costs due to transfer of wealth, potential GDP losses or macroeconomic adjustments costs could be foreseen.
