ABSTRACT
Electric and electromagnetic fields elicit a wide variety of responses in biological systems (1). The mechanisms that account for the responses are unknown, and each biological system has been considered essentially a black box with a particular transfer function. This has been justified by noting that the theory of ionic equilibrium across membranes cannot even explain all steady-state observations, so it is hard to extrapolate to transient processes in the rore complex cells and tissues. However, in the last few years there has been significant progress in our understanding of the way in which electric fields interact with cell membranes, and this has increased our ability to deal with more complex effects.
