ABSTRACT
The bladder mucosa is formed by the transitional epithelium (which is also found in the lower part or the renal pelvises of the kidneys, the ureters, and the proximal urethra) and is connected by the lamina propria to the muscular bladder wall. Bladder cancer is the sixth most common cancer, the second most common genitourinary cancer, the fourth most common malignancy in men, and the eighth most common malignancy in women globally. Bladder cancer typically causes macroscopic hematuria (blood in the urine), pain or burning during urination, frequent urination, nocturia, dysuria, and general weakness. Patients suspected of urothelial carcinomas should undergo cytoscopic examination, which is more sensitive than CT scan and ultrasound for detecting bladder cancer. Non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) is often treated by tumor removal via a transurethral approach, and introduction of chemotherapy or other therapies into the bladder with a catheter. Locally advanced and metastatic bladder cancer may be treated with chemotherapy, gemcitabine and taxanes.
