ABSTRACT
This chapter discusses the work on the responses of musculoskeletal tissues and cells to exogenous electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and their clinical applications to bone and cartilage. The use of EMFs to improve bone and cartilage repair was an outgrowth of the original research on the electrical properties of bone and injured tissues and the subsequent attempts to stimulate repair and regeneration using weak electrical currents. C. L. Ross et al and co-authors review the evidence for low-frequency EMF enhancement of the differentiation of human bone marrow stem cells. The central EMF methods are direct currents where electrodes are inserted into the fracture site and microampere currents applied; capacitive coupling for which bare or insulated electrodes are placed on the skin and kHz currents are applied. The ability of EMFs to modulate inflammation pathways is also a remarkable development. The heterogeneity of experiments, models, experimental conditions, and EMF characteristics leads to confusion and lack of confidence.
