ABSTRACT
Proctoscopy and sigmoidoscopy form part of the routine examination of patients who present with lower gastrointestinal symptoms, and should always be preceded by a digital rectal examination (DRE). DRE is an invaluable part of the clinical examination, which may identify rectal tumors in the lower and middle rectum and may identify pelvic masses in both males and females. It also provides independent clinical assessment relating to the presence of blood, melena, mucus, or pus in the rectum. Cystoscopy is the single most common urological procedure and is used in the investigation of urinary symptoms. Patients who present with urological symptoms such as frequency, dysuria, and hematuria undergo cystoscopy for the diagnosis of lesions of the urethra and bladder.
