ABSTRACT

CONTENTS 16.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 397 16.2 MA and CA ...................................................................................................................... 399

16.2.1 MA and CA for Storage................................................................................... 402 16.2.2 MA=CA for Transport...................................................................................... 402 16.2.3 Modified Atmosphere Packaging................................................................... 403 16.2.4 Low-Pressure (Hypobaric) Atmospheres ...................................................... 404 16.2.5 Insecticidal Atmospheres ................................................................................. 404 16.2.6 Additional Treatments ..................................................................................... 405 16.2.7 Potential Problems and Hazards of MA and CA ........................................ 405

16.3 Individual Crops.............................................................................................................. 406 16.3.1 Bananas and Plantains (Musa spp.)................................................................ 406 16.3.2 Cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill.) ............................................................... 410 16.3.3 Durian (Durio zibethinus Murray) ................................................................... 412 16.3.4 Feijoa (Feijoa sellowiana Berg.).......................................................................... 412 16.3.5 Lanzones (Lansium domesticum Correa) ......................................................... 413 16.3.6 Mango (Mangifera indica L.)............................................................................. 413 16.3.7 Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) ............................................................. 422 16.3.8 Papaya (Carica papaya L.) ................................................................................. 422 16.3.9 Passion Fruit (Yellow) (Passiflora edulis (Sims) f. flavicarpa Deg.) .............. 425 16.3.10 Pineapple (Ananas comsus L., Merrill.) ........................................................... 427 16.3.11 Sapodilla (Manilkara achras L., syn. Achras sapota L.)................................... 428 16.3.12 Sapote Mamey (Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H.E. Moore & Stearn) .................... 428 16.3.13 Starfruit (Carambola) (Averrhoa carambola L.)............................................... 429 16.3.14 Sugar Apple (Custard Apple, Sweet Sop) (Annona squamosa L.)............... 430 16.3.15 Wax Apple (Syzygium samarangense) ............................................................. 430

16.4 Conclusions....................................................................................................................... 430 16.5 Future Research Needs ................................................................................................... 431 References.................................................................................................................................... 432

The increase in the demand, and thus, in the export of tropical crops, have increased the need to investigate and to develop technologies that can maintain the quality and postharvest life of these crops for prolonged periods. Modified atmosphere (MA)

and

and controlled atmosphere (CA) are adequate technologies that can help extend the postharvest life of these crops. MA and CA are not used for storage of tropical crops, but are used for their marine transport (Yahia, 1998a, 2006a). Until recently many tropical fruits were only grown in home gardens and small farms

primarily for local consumption. Currently several tropical fruits are among the most important horticultural crops of international trade. The market for tropical fruits has increased significantly in the last few decades. This is due to several factors including changes in diet habits, demand for exotic articles, improved technologies such as storage and transport, and free under World Trade Organization (WTO) regime. Prices of agricultural commodities have been steadily declining in the last 20 years, however, tropical fruit prices have been rising (Buchanan, 1994). The improved prices, improved technologies, and increased demand are resulting in increased plantations of a diversity of tropical fruits in several regions of the world. Tropical crops are chilling sensitive (Yahia, 2006b). Some types of avocados, bananas,

breadfruit, carambola, cherimoya, jackfruit, mamey, mango, mangosteen, papaya, pineapple, sapota, soursop, and white sapote are very sensitive to chilling injury (CI). Durian, feijoa, sugar apple, and tamarillo are moderately sensitive. Chilling sensitivity of tropical fruits does not permit their long-termmaintenance in low temperature, and as a consequence all these crops have a relatively short postharvest life compared to many temperate and subtropical fruits, only few weeks at the most. MA and CA have been shown to ameliorate chilling sensitivity in several crops, including those of tropical origin (Yahia, 1998a, 2006b). The tropics are characterized by conditions that favor the spread of insects and diseases

(high temperature and relative humidity). Some of the most important diseases, which infect tropical fruits and cause major losses, include anthracnose (caused by Colletotrichum gloeosprioides Penz.) and stem end rot (caused by Diplodia natalensis P. Evans). Anthracnose is the major postharvest problem in bananas, mangoes, papayas, and contributes to most of their losses. MA=CA can control some decay either directly or indirectly by delaying ripening and senescence of the commodity, and thus maintaining the resistance to pathogen attack (Yahia, 1998a, 2006b). Effective control of pathogens is essential for the postharvest maintenance of these crops, and for the successful application of MA=CA. Many insects infect tropical fruit crops and impede their commercialization due to

quarantine restrictions imposed by various countries (Yahia, 1998b, 2004, 2006a). Some of the most important insects include various species of fruit flies such as the Ceratitis in several regions of the world, several Anastrefa species in South and Central America and the West Indies, the genus Dacus in Africa and Asia, etc. (Yahia, 2006a). Quarantine treatments for tropical fruits are needed in order to distribute them around the world. Traditionally, chemical fumigants (mainly ethylene dibromide [EDB]=and methyl bromide [MB]) have been the principal treatments used for this purpose. However, EDB has been banned (Federal Register, 1984) because of health risks. MB is still been used for some crops, but with restrictions due to concerns over the use of toxic chemicals, and the uncertainty of prohibition. Several physical treatments have been tried for quarantine purposes (Yahia and Ariza, 2001; Yahia et al., 2004). Low temperatures (08C-2.28C for 10-16 days) can be used for control of the Mediterranean fruit fly. However, these temperatures cannot be used for most tropical fruits because of chilling sensitivity. Hot water treatments (HWTs) are been used in several countries to control fruit flies in mangoes (46.18C for 65-90min) and have been used in papaya (two-stage heating process with temperatures of 42 for 30min and 498C for 20min) (Yahia, 2006a). Vapor heat treatments have been developed and used (Fons, 1990). Injury have been reported in both mango and papaya fruits treated with heat (Paull and Armstrong, 1994). Irradiation has proved potentially applicable for insect control in some tropical fruits such as mango and papaya (Paull and Armstrong, 1994; Yahia, 2006a), however, commercial application is still very limited due

to several problems including possible injury to the fruit, high costs, and consumer concerns. MA and CA (1.0 kPa O2 and=or 50 kPa CO2) have insecticidal and fungistatic effects, and the potential to be developed as quarantine treatments as a safe alternative to the health-hazardous fumigants (Yahia, 1998a,b; 2006a). For more details, see Chapter 11. Despite all the previously mentioned problems encountered for tropical fruit in post-

harvest (chilling sensitivity, disease and insect infestations, and short postharvest life), tropical fruits need to be shipped to markets far away from growing areas, usually by air or sea. Shipping by sea can take a very long time, but is economical compared to air-freight. For example, the minimum time required for sea freight from Eastern Australia to South East Asia, Japan and North America, and Europe are 3, 4, and 6 weeks, respectively (McGlasson, 1989). Minimum shipping periods from Mexico to Europe and Japan are about 18 and 21 days, respectively (Yahia, 1993a, 1995c). Therefore, it is essential to assure a sufficiently long postharvest life for these crops to be able to be distributed in distant markets. In addition to better postharvest handling systems, which include optimum harvesting time, control of insects and diseases, and the use of ideal postharvest temperature management, MA and CA can be of major benefits to preserve the quality of these fruits and to prolong their postharvest life. The rising importance of tropical fruits in world trade and the recent developments in

MA and CA technology and applications require the review of published research in order to suggest some valid conclusions and recommendations to improve the handling of tropical fruits, and in particular to increase the use of MA and CA. Several excellent books and reviews have been written on MA and CA (Dewey et al., 1969; Dewey, 1977; Smock, 1979; El-Goorani and Sommer, 1981; Richardson and Meheriuk, 1982; Blankenship, 1985; Kader, 1986; Fellman, 1989; Calderon and Barkai-Golan, 1990; Blanpied, 1993). However, these covered mainly temperate (especially pome) fruits. Very little research has been done on MA=CA of tropical crops as compared to temperate crops such as apples, pears, and kiwifruit. For example, out of 1982 articles published on MA=CA of fruits and vegetables from 1977 to 1993 <6% were on tropical fruits and vegetables (Kader and Morris, 1981, 1997; Kader, 1985; Zagory and Kader, 1989, 1993). Very few reviews have been written on MA=CA of tropical fruits (Hatton and Spalding, 1990; Kader, 1993; Yahia and Paull, 1997; Yahia, 1998a; Yahia, 2006c), and information has been largely limited to mangoes, bananas, pineapples, and papayas. Information on many of the minor tropical crops is either missing or dispersed in nonestablished journals and local reports.