ABSTRACT
The seed-sucking insects Hemiptera (Heteroptera-true bugs) include several families such as Alydidae, Corimelaenidae, Coreidae, Lygaeidae, Pentatomidae, Pyrrhocoridae, Rhopalidae, and Scutelleridae (Schuh and Slater 1995; Schaefer and Panizzi 2000). The majority of heteropterans prefer to feed on immature seeds, which are softer and therefore easier to penetrate than mature seeds; in addition they have greater water content. Species in Pyrrhocoridae and Lygaeidae feed on mature seeds (Janzen 1978). Pyrrhocorids include the cotton stainers (Dysdercus spp.), which are important pests (Schaefer and Ahmad 2000), and several species with no economic importance that inhabit tropical forests (Janzen 1972). Lygaeidae are known as “seed bugs” (Sweet 1960), although several species feed on sap from vegetative tissues (e.g., Blissus spp. and Nysius spp.) (Sweet 2000). Among the Alydidae, Neomegalotomus
13.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 295 13.2 Food Characteristics (Seeds) ........................................................................................................ 296
13.2.1 Nutritional Composition .................................................................................................. 296 13.2.2 Allelochemicals ............................................................................................................... 297 13.2.3 Physical and Structural Aspects ...................................................................................... 297 13.2.4 Abundance ....................................................................................................................... 298
13.3 Biology of Seed-Sucking Heteropterans ...................................................................................... 298 13.3.1 Feeding (Ingestion, Digestion, Excretion, and Food Utilization) ................................... 298 13.3.2 Mating .............................................................................................................................. 302 13.3.3 Oviposition ...................................................................................................................... 302 13.3.4 Nymph Development ....................................................................................................... 303 13.3.5 Dispersal of Nymphs and Adults and Host Plant Choice ................................................ 304 13.3.6 Natural Enemies and Defense ......................................................................................... 307
13.4 Impact of Biotic Factors (Food) on Performance of Heteropterans ............................................ 308 13.4.1 Suitable Foods (Seeds/Fruits) ......................................................................................... 308
13.4.1.1 Nymphs ............................................................................................................ 308 13.4.1.2 Adults ............................................................................................................... 309
13.4.2 Less Suitable Foods (Leaves, Branches, Trunks) ............................................................310 13.4.3 Impact of Nymph-to-Adult Food Switch on Adult Performance .....................................310
