ABSTRACT
Today, combustion of fossil fuels is the world’s primary source of energy, and it is also the primary source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to the atmosphere. While the world economies clearly need energy to sustain them, there are alternative energy sources available that do not emit significant GHGs. The two primary sources are nuclear energy and renewable energy. Renewable energy includes many different forms of energy, such as solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, and ocean. These renewable energies are used
CONTENTS
7.1 Introduction and Scope ............................................................................. 261 7.2 RET and Resources .................................................................................... 262
7.2.1 Solar Energy ................................................................................... 263 7.2.2 Wind Energy ................................................................................... 265 7.2.3 Hydroelectric Power ...................................................................... 267 7.2.4 Other Renewable Energy Resources for Power Generation .... 268
7.3 RET Characteristics ................................................................................... 274 7.4 Variability of Wind and Solar Resources ...............................................277 7.5 Grid Adequacy and Security.................................................................... 282 7.6 Ensuring System Adequacy and Security with VRETs ....................... 286
7.6.1 Supply-Side Options ...................................................................... 287 7.6.2 Demand-Side Options ................................................................... 291
7.7 Transmission Issues Associated with VRETs ........................................ 292 7.8 Carbon Reductions Associated with RETs ............................................. 295 7.9 Estimates of U.S. RET Potential and Carbon Mitigation Impacts ....... 298 7.10 Ultimate Potential of Wind and PV in the U.S. Central Electric
Market..........................................................................................................302 7.11 Summary and Conclusions ......................................................................305 Questions for Discussion ...................................................................................305 References ............................................................................................................. 307
today in all energy markets from residential to electric power production. The generation of power from renewable electric technologies (RETs) has been growing worldwide and shows every prospect of continuing to grow in the future. In its 2011 World Energy Outlook (International Energy Agency [IEA] 2011), the IEA estimates global use of nonhydro renewables for power generation will increase from 3% in 2009 to 15% in 2035. Similarly, in its 2012 International Energy Outlook (Energy Information Administration [EIA] 2011), the U.S. EIA projects that by 2020 the electric-generating capacity of all RETs together will be larger than that of any single fossil fuel (see Figure 7.1). This projected growth of RETs, combined with the fact that the U.S. electric power sector is the primary source of U.S. carbon emissions (see Figure 7.2), provides a substantial opportunity to reduce carbon emissions. This chapter addresses this opportunity.
