ABSTRACT
Although concrete, in various forms, has been used as a structural material for over 2000 years, today’s Portland cement-based concrete is a far cry from the earlier versions. It is a highly sophisticated composite, with the possibility of tailoring the composition and microstructure to the specic application. e production of concrete exceeds that of any other engineered material: more than 400 billion cubic meters (or ∼10 million tons) worldwide. Its popularity is due to a number of factors, including the availability of the raw materials (basically limestone, clay, water, sand, and stone), its formability into complex shapes at ambient temperatures, and its low cost compared with the alternatives.
