ABSTRACT
Disturbance Regime .......................................................................................................... 121 6.3.1 Emulating Overstory Conditions Originating from Large-Scale
Disturbances to Support Ecological Processes .................................................. 121 6.3.2 Manifold Harvesting as a Strategy for Managing Structural and Species
Diversity .................................................................................................................. 123 6.3.2.1 Clearcut System ....................................................................................... 124 6.3.2.2 Seed Tree System ..................................................................................... 125
6.1.1 Forest Restoration as a Holistic Challenge
Forest restoration projects have become increasingly common around the world and many studies have accumulated in this eld during the last decades. Forest restoration means changing the forest landscape component toward a “more natural” situation (sensu Fischer and Fischer 2012). But what is “natural”? Bradshaw (2002) called it the “original ecosystem” and focused on two major attributes: ecosystem structure and ecosystem function, with typical values for both attributes that are reduced by ecosystem “degradation.” Ecological restoration is an activity that also ideally results in the return of an ecosystem to an undisturbed status (Palmer and Filoso 2009). On the path back to the original ecosystem state, natural recovery as well as ecological restoration offer many developmental options. As these denitions necessitate a holistic approach, the attention in recent restoration projects has turned to the integration of ecosystem services. Similarly, restoration actions focused on enhancing biodiversity should also support increased provision of ecosystem services
6.3.2.3 Retention Tree System ............................................................................ 125 6.3.2.4 Irregular Shelterwood ............................................................................ 126 6.3.2.5 Emulating Old-Growth Gap Conditions for Regeneration
Processes .................................................................................................. 126 6.4 Restoration Strategies for the Active Manipulation of Below-Canopy Stand
Components ........................................................................................................................ 129 6.4.1 Emulating Large-Scale Disturbances to Support Ecological Below-
Canopy Processes .................................................................................................. 130 6.4.2 The Function of Ground Vegetation: Facilitation versus Competition .......... 132
6.4.2.1 The Role of Ground Vegetation in Natural Forests ............................ 133 6.4.2.2 Interactions between the Different Hierarchical Strata
of Forest Ecosystems ............................................................................... 134 6.4.2.3 Using Ground Vegetation to Promote or Discriminate
Against Specic Tree Regeneration ...................................................... 135 6.4.3 Direct Control of Species Composition by Establishing Articial
Regeneration ........................................................................................................... 136 6.4.4 Manipulating the Small-Scale Seedling Environment ..................................... 137 6.4.5 Utilizing Deadwood to Improve Regeneration Survival ................................. 138
6.4.5.1 How Deadwood Facilitates Regeneration ........................................... 139 6.4.5.2 Seed Interception, Retention and Storage............................................ 139 6.4.5.3 Germination and Seedling Establishment .......................................... 139 6.4.5.4 Seedling and Sapling Survival .............................................................. 140 6.4.5.5 Protection from Browsing Damage ...................................................... 140
6.4.6 Effects of Deadwood Properties .......................................................................... 140 6.4.6.1 Abundance ............................................................................................... 140 6.4.6.2 Origin and Type ...................................................................................... 141 6.4.6.3 Size ............................................................................................................ 141 6.4.6.4 Decay Status ............................................................................................. 141
6.4.7 Deadwood and Forest Restoration ...................................................................... 141 References ..................................................................................................................................... 142
(Rey Benayas et al. 2009). This approach presents an opportunity for enhancing benets to human livelihood and funding sources as well as generating public support for such initiatives (Trabucchi et al. 2012).
