ABSTRACT
Throughout the temperate and boreal zones, human intervention has inuenced landscapes and forests for thousands of years (Ellis et al., 2013; Foley et al., 2005; Kareiva et al., 2007). The degree of human disturbance has only been constrained by the technology and resources available to different cultures and by time since initial habitation. For millennia, humans have inuenced forests by regulating populations of ungulate browsers or keeping domestic livestock, clearing for agriculture, cutting trees for fuel, building material and ber, introducing new species, using or suppressing re (Kretch III, 1999; Sanderson et al., 2002). Today’s forests are the result of all these disturbances, along with climatic change and species migration into postglacial landscapes (e.g., Bradshaw, 2015). The ability of humans to affect forest ecosystems increased dramatically after the Industrial Revolution. Engineering works, including mining, dams, and roads, are both more widespread and more intensive (Sanderson et al., 2002). Management has been extended to native forests over larger areas; at the same time, the switch from biomass to fossil fuels
CONTENTS
25.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 519 25.2 Why Restore? ...................................................................................................................... 520
25.2.1 Vague Goals ............................................................................................................ 520 25.2.2 Naturalness Paradigm .......................................................................................... 521
25.2.2.1 Native Species .......................................................................................... 521 25.2.2.2 Natural Disturbance Regimes ............................................................... 521 25.2.2.3 Complex Structure .................................................................................. 522 25.2.2.4 Limits of the Naturalness Paradigm .................................................... 522
25.2.3 Dened Expectations ............................................................................................ 523 25.3 Social Context ..................................................................................................................... 523 25.4 Key Issues in Practice ........................................................................................................ 524
25.4.1 Appropriate Material ............................................................................................. 524 25.4.2 Biophysical Environment ...................................................................................... 525 25.4.3 Multiple Interventions ........................................................................................... 525 25.4.4 Scale and Diversity ................................................................................................ 526
25.5 Adaptation to Future Environments ............................................................................... 527 References ..................................................................................................................................... 527
changed traditional forest management. Industrial, residential, and automotive emissions of combustion products affect forests directly and through their effects on climate.
