ABSTRACT

Services .................................................................................................................... 110 5.2.3Classification of Ecosystem Services ................................................................... 111

5.2.3.1 Provisioning Services ............................................................................. 112 5.2.3.2Regulating Services ................................................................................ 113 5.2.3.3Cultural Services..................................................................................... 115

5.3Biophysical, Social, and Monetary Assessments: Methods and Tools ....................... 116 5.3.1Biophysical Assessment ........................................................................................ 116

5.3.1.1Ecosystem Service Indicators ................................................................ 117 5.3.1.2Modeling Tools and Techniques ........................................................... 119 5.3.1.3Mapping and Communication .............................................................. 120

5.3.2Social Assessment .................................................................................................. 120 5.3.3Monetary Valuation ............................................................................................... 121

5.3.3.1Market Based ........................................................................................... 122 5.3.3.2Direct and Indirect.................................................................................. 123 5.3.3.3Benefit Transfer ........................................................................................ 123

5.4Forest Ecosystem Services and Ecological Forest Management ................................. 123 5.5Payment for Ecosystem Services ..................................................................................... 125 5.6Case Studies ........................................................................................................................ 126

5.6.1Toward an Ecosystem Potential Index for Canada ........................................... 126 5.6.2Mangrove Forests................................................................................................... 128

References ..................................................................................................................................... 130

The management of forests worldwide and the desired values extracted from them have constantly evolved and adapted from better knowledge and changing social demands. Indeed, the ability of a forest to provide habitat, clean water, or sequester carbon is now not only a key social expectation but also a marketable good (e.g., Uchida et  al. 2005; Forest Trends and the Ecosystem Marketplace 2008; Bigsby 2009; Arriagada et al. 2012; Alix-Garcia and Wolff 2014). Many critical benefits to human well-being are derived from forests, including climate regulation (e.g., carbon sequestration), food, human health (Sandifer et  al. 2015), or raw materials (e.g., timber). Global environmental and other regional drivers of change are raising awareness on the roles and contributions of forests in supporting a safe and stable living space for humanity. More than ever, forest managers are expected to integrate human-nature relationships and maintain the multi-functionality of forested landscapes as part of sustainable land use planning (Adamowicz et al. 2003; Vihervaara et al. 2012). Furthermore, there is a pressing need for a new paradigm and associated methods that integrate the continued development of human societies and the maintenance of ecosystems in a resilient and functioning state (Steffen et al. 2015), as well as a high policy demand for decision support in sustainable forest management (Jacobs et al. 2015).