ABSTRACT
In the last half-century, we have become increasingly dependent on the plethora of electronic applications to improve the quality of life. Examples of such electronic devices include computers, laptops, digital cameras, and mobile phones. When we are interested in purchasing such a device, we are usually interested in the performance and lifetime of the product. Thus, as an end user, we ask questions such as, how much it cost, what resolution does the display provide, how long does the battery last between recharges, and for how long our device would perform functionally without observing any degradation or malfunction. The last two questions are tightly related with
CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 93 4.2 Technology and Device Level .................................................................... 95
4.2.1 Random Dopant Fluctuations (RDF) ............................................ 96 4.2.2 Bias Temperature Instability (BTI) .............................................. 103 4.2.3 Hot Carrier Injection (HCI) .......................................................... 104 4.2.4 Time Dependent Dielectric Breakdown (TDDB) ....................... 107 4.2.5 Electromigration ............................................................................ 110 4.2.6 Overview of Aging Mechanisms ................................................ 111
4.3 Circuit Level ............................................................................................... 112 4.3.1 Basic Combinational Logic ........................................................... 112
4.3.1.1 Inverter ............................................................................. 112 4.3.1.2 Two-Input NAND ........................................................... 112
4.3.2 Low-Noise Amplifier Circuit (LNA) ........................................... 114 4.3.3 Operational Amplifier (OPAMP) ................................................. 115 4.3.4 Current Mirror ............................................................................... 117 4.3.5 Ring Oscillator ............................................................................... 117
4.4 Conclusions ................................................................................................. 120 References ............................................................................................................. 120
the device and circuit degradation which lead to product degradation and malfunction. On the other hand, for manufacturers it is essential to know the useful life of their products since this will determine the warranty. Apart from that the manufacturers also need to know the yield of their product, namely how many parts/dies of their production line/wafer fail to operate reliably. Answers to these questions are essential since they are related to the cost of a product. Hence, it is obvious that variability and reliability issues and their analysis from device up to system level are crucial during design phase of a commercial product.
