ABSTRACT
This chapter explores the hidden but universal societal enigmas that have existed since the beginning of civilization and are in fact wired into our very biology, and that have a huge impact on our physical, mental and spiritual health. Healers, or shamans, have existed since the Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic era, and they played a pivotal role in cognitive and social evolution through visual symbolism, group bonding rituals and analogical thought processes. Since the scientific renaissance and separation of religion and science, dualistic thinking has replaced holistic thinking in Western society. Since the 17th century and the emerging dualistic thinking in Western society, shamanism began to be perceived as contrary to rational thought, and shamans were regarded as little more than theatrical performers. Fundamental to all shamanic practices is the ability to access ASC. The shaman achieves these non-ordinary states of consciousness through drumming, singing, chanting, dancing or using psychoactive substances.
