ABSTRACT
Introduction Cardiovascular disease (CVD) has become a major health issue throughout the world, exceeding infection, as the leading cause of death worldwide (1,2). In the Western world, in particular, the United States, CVD exceeds the next five causes of death combined. Although there has been a reduction in mortality in several forms of CVD, including acute myocardial infarction (AMI), there has been little progress in treating heart failure (HF), a condition that affects 5 million people in the United States and 22 million worldwide (3). The increasing prevalence of HF directly relates to the improved survival of patients with acute coronary syndromes (nearly 40% of whom would manifest eventual HF by seven years) and by the significant reduction in sudden cardiac death owing to the use of internal cardio-defibrillators (ICDs) (1,4,5). However, the factor with the greatest impact on the incidence and prevalence of HF is its association with advanced aging. The number of people over 65 years of age in the United States would double in the next 25 years, and it is estimated that nearly 15% of this population will develop HF (1). These numbers clearly illustrate the need for the development of improved therapies throughout the continuum of this insidious disease process, that is, to intervene after acute injury, to prevent negative remodeling and to treat failing myocardium.
