ABSTRACT
KEY POINTS ■ Modifiable pathophysiologic mechanisms for congestive heart failure (CHF) include the sympa-
thetic nervous system (SNS) and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). ■ Risk factors for development of CHF including diabetes, coronary artery disease (CAD),
and hypertension need to be aggressively managed to reduce left ventricular systolic and/or diastolic dysfunction.
