ABSTRACT
Congestive heart failure (CHF) is commonly regarded as the “final common pathway” of
cardiovascular decline resulting from all forms of heart disease. Despite advances in the
prevention and treatment of many forms of cardiovascular disease, CHF continues to
exist as a major and, unfortunately, growing form of morbidity and mortality in the
United States and around the world. As myocardial function declines and systemic
compensatory systems are activated to support blood pressure and organ perfusion,
patients progress through increasingly severe stages of CHF, each with increasing
morbidity and mortality.
