ABSTRACT
Until modern times, play was a periodic catharsis, associated with fairs and festivals rather than with childhood. Games, whether on boards or grassy fields, were the periodic indulgences of youths or adults, not primarily – or even often – of children. Playthings and toys often originated in adult ceremonies and in their play, and children found limited time and resources to either play with or make their own toys. Among the many changes that came with the modern world of industry, professionalization, and schooling was the identification of play, games, and toys with childhood. This transformation was closely related to broad economic and social changes. They shifted playtimes, places, and activities to children; created conflicts over and debates about children's play and playthings that engaged parents and educators; and affected merchandisers and, more subtly, children themselves. These transformations culminated in the twentieth century as play and toys came to serve both as tools for training children to assume adult roles and as venues and tools for children's fantasy. They also came to ambiguously express children's autonomy while serving commercial interests in ways that frequently led to “moral panics” – intense cycles of anxiety – by parents and other adults.
