ABSTRACT
PAs provide several benefits which build directly on their capacity to perform a number of ecological functions and biophysical processes. These benefits are commonly called regulating services and they include, for example, PAs’ ability to stabilise the climate, provide protection against natural hazards (flooding, droughts and avalanches, etc.) and regulate the quality of air and water by removing pollutants and excess nutrients (see Table 7.1). PAs can also support the pollination of crops and/or contribute to the control the outbreaks of diseases and pests. Regulating services and related goods https://www.niso.org/standards/z39-96/ns/oasis-exchange/table">
Ecosystem service
Examples of related goods
Climate regulation – through maintaining carbon cycles and regulating a number of climate parameters such as humidity, local precipitation and temperature
Carbon storage and sequestration, stable climate (regional and local)
Natural hazard regulation – through mitigating extreme events/providing natural barriers
Flood control, storm protection, wildfire control, prevention of avalanches, prevention of rock falls, avoiding coastal erosion
Purification and detoxification of air, soils and water – through retention of toxins and nutrients
Nitrogen (N) retention capacity
Drinking water for human consumption, water for industrial use and to support the production of goods (food, fibre, energy), reduced air pollution levels and related reduced risk of negative impacts on human health
Water/water flow regulation – through regulating surface water runoff, (sub) surface water flow and soil infiltration capacity
Drainage and stabilisation of water flow (non-flood related), drought mitigation, availability of water for irrigation, aquifer recharge
Erosion and soil fertility regulation – through maintaining soil intactness, nutrient content and fauna
Maintenance or increase of agricultural/forestry production
Pollination – through maintaining wild pollinators
Maintenance/increase of agricultural production by supporting the production of food and fibre, aesthetic benefits and inspiration (wildflowers and other ecosystem components forming aesthetic beauty, etc.)
Pest and disease regulation – through maintaining natural enemies of pests
Disease and pest control with beneficial impacts on both agriculture and also human health
Noise regulation – through vegetative cover acting as natural barrier for noise
Noise control with impacts on human health (mental and physical)
Source: own presentation, based on MA (2005a), de Groot et al. (2010), UK NEA (2011), Kettunen et al. (2013)