ABSTRACT
Besides representing one of the fundamental three “Rs” taught and learned in school, mathematics knowledge is necessary for everyday life. Mathematics understanding is utilized in simple trips to the grocery store, required for nearly all forms of employment, underscores acquisition of items, such as homes and cars, is involved in daily life tasks, such as cooking, permits us to maintain and understand personal health, is prevalent in social media, and is fundamental to the development of technology that we utilize on an hourly basis (National Research Council [NCR], 2001; Patton, Cronin, Bassett, & Koppel, 1997). Competence in mathematics is increasingly critical, as evidenced by employment data suggesting that development in mathematics, science, and engineering careers will likely outpace general job growth (National Mathematics Advisory Panel [NMAP], 2008). Compelling research has suggested that although prerequisite reading, mathematics, and attention skills upon school entry all predict later school achievement, the most significant of these predictors is mathematics (Duncan et al., 2007). Unfortunately, it also appears that challenges with mathematics in preschool or during the kindergarten year persist through intermediate grades, without intervention (Morgan, Farkas, & Wu, 2009). Until recently, less attention has been paid to mathematics instruction and intervention, and it is possible that such directly provided school-based mathematics experiences may substantially impact student outcomes (NCR, 2001).
