ABSTRACT
In his tactical manual Arrian distinguishes three kinds of signal useful in war: verbal orders, visual signals, and salpinx calls (Arr. Takt. 27; cf. Asklep. Takt. 12.10 and Aelian Takt. 35.2). Verbal orders are the clearest, but ‘the clash of arms, the exhortations shouted to one another, the cries of the wounded, the passing of the cavalry, the neighing of horses and the noise of the baggage-train’ can make them inaudible. Fog, dust, the sun’s glare, a snowstorm, rain, and overgrown or hilly ground obstruct visual signals. The salpinx, on the other hand, is good with regard to ‘impediments from the air’ (ta ek tou aeros empodia), that is, it can overcome both aural and visual obstacles. The peculiar conditions of classical Greek battle ought to have made the salpinx especially useful, for they only increased the difficulties mentioned by Arrian. Fought mostly during the dry summer season in small valleys ringed by mountains, hoplite battles were dusty and noisy. The widespread use of bronze armor made all blows loud (Tyrtaios 19.14–15 West). In foul weather the noise created by rain and hail hitting such armor made it difficult to hear verbal commands, as Timoleon’s Carthaginian opponents discovered in Sicily (Plut. Tim. 28.4). Even in the best conditions the standard bronze helmets, with no openings for the ears and small ones for the eyes, must have made hearing extremely difficult, and restricted vision markedly. Lighter caps began to replace these helmets in the late fifth and fourth century, but the helmets did not disappear (Anderson 1970:28–37). Nevertheless, in spite of these apparently favorable conditions for use, Greeks blew the salpinx before and after battles but rarely during a battle itself. I propose to explore what we know about this instrument and its uses, and then to discuss why the Greeks failed to use it more. 1
