ABSTRACT
It is a further question whether these properties and relations are universals, strictly identical in their different instantiations, or whether they are as particular as the objects that have them, having at best exact resemblance that is not grounded in identity. Since exact resemblance is symmetrical, transitive and reflexive, equivalence classes can be formed of these particularized properties and relations, classes which are interesting substitutes for universals, though in my view not fully satisfactory substitutes. I have discussed this in a book on universals (Armstrong, 1989).
