ABSTRACT
Already well under way by the 1970s, retail internationalization accelerated in the mid-1990s. The internationalization process for companies and for store formats is, however, a long, risky, complex, expensive and non-linear one. Failure rates have been high and, since the turn of the century, some of Europe’s major firms, such as Marks & Spencer, Royal Ahold, and more recently Carrefour, have instigated a series of new international launches and withdrawals. Could these groups have avoided failure? Did some of them neglect their home market? Analysing the cause of a failure is often as important as analysing a success; mounting the learning curve provides rich experience. Moreover, and despite the current trend of standardization towards a single consumer, each country continues to require a specific approach (Colla and Dupuis 1997). In a number of emerging economies, distribution maturity has accelerated, whether Chile, South Korea or China, with the emergence of strong local retailers who understand how to copy overseas retailers’ know-how, correct mistakes, and develop hybrid formulae that are better adapted to the local setting.
